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principally belief in the soul's continuance. This belief in the soul's continuance is perhaps
[1. Graves of Greeks and Romans have been found where permanent conduits in the grave mounds permitted the
passage of liquids and viands to the corpse--cf. Frazer's Pausanias, X. 4:7, and the editor's comment on the passage;
and the same is true of graves in Mongolia, though in this case the evident purpose was not the entry of food but the
exit of the ghost, as the openings are at the side of the tomb--cf. Geographical Magazine, May, 1913, p. 651.]
the most momentous and the choicest, as well as the oldest, that animistic races have left to us. The clear beginning
of the doctrine so prized in all religions save Gautama's, viz., that concerning the immortality of the soul, is here in
its embryonic stage. We have already noted that one means, perhaps the chief one, to the acquisition of this idea was
the appearance of the dead in dreams. The deceased, so the conclusion ran, was not dead, he still existed, and in his
own form. It may be remarked, en passant, that if religion inheres at all in this belief, then religion is everywhere
existent; for no race has yet been discovered which bad not faith in the continuance of life beyond the grave. Once
more, if religion inheres not in belief but in the practices to which belief gives rise, then in the care for the well-
being of the soul of one that has passed, so widely prevalent, religion is no less shown to be universal.
To suppose, however, that the content of the primitive idea is that of full-fledged immortality or unending existence
would be a serious misunderstanding. The conception of deathlessness in its absolute sense is probably never present
among savages. Primitive philosophy does not sound so profound depths. Hence, because "immortality" says more
than is contained in the savage's concepts of future life, the word "continuance" has been employed to express the
notion found among the uncivilized. On the other hand, one must be on his guard when it is affirmed that savages
have no idea of immortality. In the strict sense this is true, but only in so far as uncultured peoples have not reached
any conception which at all approaches that of endlessness. They have no enduring records. Oral tradition, which
may easily become confused and dim, carries them back only a few generations--four or five, say. So the notion of
the soul life may be either indefinite--or rather, undefined--or may be regarded as limited to a certain number,
greater or less, of lives like that already passed. Indeed, the life may have degrees, so to speak. Thus the African Etoi
and Bakongo believe that "though ghosts have died once, they can die a second time, and so become more dead than
before."' Among the Haida a war party is always accompanied by a shaman, among
[1. Talbot, In the Shadow of the Bush, pp. 8, 24, etc.; Weeks, Primitive Bakongo, pp. 223-224, 243-244.]
whose duties is to kill the souls of the enemy.[4] In Fiji the natives believe that there is a certain Samu Yalo ("killer
of souls") who haunts the path to the realm of the dead, and when a ghost comes along rushes out to kill it with an ax
unless it succeeds in escaping. Another Fijian monster lies in wait and kills the souls of bachelors, so that they never
reach heaven. In the same islands a ghost that is troublesome to the living may have his case settled by his
unconditional demise.[5] That mortals may die again seems reasonable if only it be remembered that even gods
grow old and die, according to "the cultured Egyptians." "Very aged was Ra, and the saliva ran down from his
mouth and fell upon the earth"--a perfect picture of senility.[6] Heiti-eibib, a Hottentot hero-god, had the habit of
dying.[7] In Polynesia Maui's wife used also to kill the gods.[8]
[4. Swanton, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, i. 40-51, cited by Halliday, Greek Divination, p. 95.
5. Williams, Fiji, i. 244 ff.; Wilkes, U.S. Exploring Expedition, 85.
6. Murray, Ancient Egyptian Legends, p. 81; cf. Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 54 ff.
7. Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, pp. 56 ff.
8 Westervelt, Legends of Maui, p. 127.]
XI
MODIFICATIONS OF THE IDEA OF CONTINUANCE
THE continuance of the human soul's life is conditioned in various ways in different regions and stages of culture.
Some tribes assign to souls a definite number of Post-mortem lives, which number may, however, have stood for
indefinite continuance, being the tradition remaining from an earlier stage when ability to count above a small
aggregate was uncommon. Thus Dyaks allot to the soul seven lives, after which it is annihilated.[1]Or continuance
may be not the common fate, only that of a select few. The basis of selection then naturally varies.[2] It may be that
of descent or station in life. Thus only chiefs survive in Fiji, and among the Tongans of the South Sea Islands.[3] Or
the
[1. Gomes, Sea Dyaks of Borneo, p. 208.
2. Carpenter, Comparative Religion, p. 232.
3 Mariner, Natives of Tonga Islands, ii. 29 ff.]
mode of death may have something to do with it, as when New Guineans separate souls according as they died by
sword or by magic--the two causes of death allowed to exist by this people.[4] Or (and this state of affairs exists,
almost certainly, only in a somewhat advanced stage of culture) ethical standards may be established, and future life
may be conditioned on compliance with such standards in this life. Such an idea may be found in a comparatively
small area, neighboring regions showing no knowledge of such a test.' On the other hand, it has happened that while
such standards ostensibly exist, magical practices in effect reduce the test to its lowest terms or even to the vanishing
point. So with the "Negative Confession" of Egypt. This is clear from its evident use by practically every or any
person, independent of character, who was by the formula of the Book of the Dead primed to override or evade
obstacles to the passing of the soul to the happy abode. In parts of Melanesia the ultimate death of the soul is
maintained, its
[4. Neuhass, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. 149 ff.
6. Codrington, Melanesians, pp. 274 ff.
6. HR, March, 1914.]
survival seeming to depend on survival in the memory of posterity.[7]
A different twist is given to the idea of continuance when the notion takes either of two somewhat closely related
forms of expression, transformation or human reincarnation. Transformation, or change of mode of existence on
earth, we have seen to be a natural consequence of that "parity of being" which is the prime characteristic of the
animistic manner of thought. Is there any reason, a priori, why this should not operate when the soul is discarnate,
unfleshed? As a matter of fact, the continuance of the soul in other forms of existence than the human is a widely
diffused notion. Transmigration is not limited to philosophic developments like Buddhism, with its Jataka Tales of
the 500 births of the Buddha. Indeed, it is practically certain that the transmigration of philosophic India is one of
the noblest and most fruitful borrowings of the Aryans from the Kolarian and Dravidian aborigines. When these
post-mortem transformations take place, the continuance may be indefinite or definitely limited. The Kai of German
New Guinea hold that ghosts are
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